Integrated pest management strategies targeting the Florida kissing bug, Triatoma sanguisuga: Preventing this vector of Chagas disease from invading your home.

Triatomines (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Triatominae), commonly called "kissing bugs", are blood-sucking pests and vectors of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease (CD). Eleven species of kissing bugs occur throughout the southern half of the USA, four of which are well known to invade human dwellings. Certain kissing bugs in the USA are known to transmit T. cruzi to humans and other animals and their bites can also lead to serious allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis. In Florida, the kissing bug Triatoma sanguisuga frequently invades homes, bites residents, and has been found infected with T. cruzi, placing humans and companion animals at risk for CD. This review outlines integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for minimizing human exposure to T. sanguisuga and CD. A comprehensive IPM plan for kissing bugs includes detailed inspections, removal of vertebrate host nesting areas, and kissing bug harborage, home improvements to exclude kissing bugs from entering structures, pest removal, and judicious use of pesticides. This approach can limit or eliminate kissing bug entry into residential structures, thereby preventing kissing bug bites, and CD infections in humans and companion animals.

Case Report: Chagas Disease in a Traveler Who Developed Esophageal Involvement Decades after Acute Infection.

Travelers to Chagas disease endemic regions of Latin America may be at risk for Trypanosoma cruzi infection. We report a 67-year-old woman who screened positive for T. cruzi infection while donating blood. The patient had a history of an unusual febrile illness and marked swelling of the face sustained at age 10 after camping in northern Mexico that led to a 3-week hospitalization without a diagnosis. More than 4 decades later, rapid diagnostic tests and commercial and confirmatory serology for Chagas disease were all positive for T. cruzi infection. On evaluation, the patient described a progressive chronic cough, gastroesophageal reflux, and dysphagia for > 10 years. There was no evidence of any cardiac complications. However, esophageal manometry demonstrated significant dysmotility, with 90% of swallows being ineffective with evidence of esophageal pressurization and retrograde peristalsis in several swallows, suggesting early autonomic disruption due to Chagas disease esophagopathy. In this report, we highlight the importance of travel-related Chagas disease among travelers to endemic regions and the need to further identify potential risks of transmission among this at-risk population.

Chagas Disease and Domestic Medical Screening Guidance for Newly Arrived Individuals Under a Humanitarian-Based Immigration Status: A Call for Action.

Chagas disease is considered one of the most important neglected tropical diseases in the Western Hemisphere, given its morbidity, mortality, and societal and economic burden. The United States has the fifth highest global burden of Chagas disease. Every year, thousands of migrant people from Latin America and throughout the globe travel to the U.S.- Mexico border searching for asylum. The U.S. CDC's Guidance for the U.S. Domestic Medical Examination for Newly Arriving Refugees provides recommendations to safeguard the health of individuals who enter the United States with a humanitarian-based immigration status as defined by the CDC's guidance under Key Considerations and Best Practices. We encourage the inclusion of Trypanosoma cruzi infection screening recommendations in this guidance as an important step toward understanding the risk and burden of Chagas disease in this vulnerable population, strengthening their access to care and contributing to the 2030 objectives of the WHO's neglected tropical diseases road map.

The multidimensional comprehension of Chagas disease. Contributions, approaches, challenges and opportunities from and beyond the Information, Education and Communication field.

Chagas is a complex, multidimensional phenomenon in which political, economic, environmental, biomedical, epidemiological, psychological, and sociocultural factors intersect. Nonetheless, the hegemonic conceptualisation has long envisioned Chagas as primarily a biomedical question, while ignoring or downplaying the other dimensions, and this limited view has reinforced the disease's long neglect. Integrating the multiple dimensions of the problem into a coherent approach adapted to field realities and needs represents an immense challenge, but the payoff is more effective and sustainable experiences, with higher social awareness, increased case detection and follow-up, improved adherence to care, and integrated participation of various actors from multiple action levels. Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) initiatives have great potential for impact in the implementation of multidimensional programs of prevention and control successfully customised to the diverse and complex contexts where Chagas disease persists.

Recommendations for Screening and Diagnosis of Chagas Disease in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Chagas disease affects an estimated 326 000-347 000 people in the United States and is severely underdiagnosed. Lack of awareness and clarity regarding screening and diagnosis is a key barrier. This article provides straightforward recommendations, with the goal of simplifying identification and testing of people at risk for US healthcare providers. METHODS: A multidisciplinary working group of clinicians and researchers with expertise in Chagas disease agreed on 6 main questions, and developed recommendations based on the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology, after reviewing the relevant literature on Chagas disease in the United States. RESULTS: Individuals who were born or resided for prolonged time periods in endemic countries of Mexico and Central and South America should be tested for Trypanosoma cruzi infection, and family members of people who test positive should be screened. Women of childbearing age with risk factors and infants born to seropositive mothers deserve special consideration due to the risk of vertical transmission. Diagnostic testing for chronic T. cruzi infection should be conducted using 2 distinct assays. CONCLUSIONS: Increasing provider-directed screening for T. cruzi infection is key to addressing this neglected public health challenge in the United States.

The multidimensional comprehension of Chagas disease. Contributions, approaches, challenges and opportunities from and beyond the Information, Education and Communication field

Chagas is a complex, multidimensional phenomenon in which political, economic, environmental, biomedical, epidemiological, psychological, and sociocultural factors intersect. Nonetheless, the hegemonic conceptualisation has long envisioned Chagas as primarily a biomedical question, while ignoring or downplaying the other dimensions, and this limited view has reinforced the disease's long neglect. Integrating the multiple dimensions of the problem into a coherent approach adapted to field realities and needs represents an immense challenge, but the payoff is more effective and sustainable experiences, with higher social awareness, increased case detection and follow-up, improved adherence to care, and integrated participation of various actors from multiple action levels. Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) initiatives have great potential for impact in the implementation of multidimensional programs of prevention and control successfully customised to the diverse and complex contexts where Chagas disease persists.

"You Don't Have a Normal Life": Coping with Chagas Disease in Los Angeles, California.

Chagas disease is the neglected tropical disease of greatest public health impact in the United States, where it affects over 300,000 people. Diverse barriers limit healthcare access for affected people; fewer than 1% have obtained testing or treatment. We interviewed 50 people with Chagas disease in Los Angeles, California, and administered a cultural consensus analysis questionnaire. Participants were asked about their experiences and perceptions of Chagas disease, access to healthcare, and strategies for coping with the disease. In participants' narratives, the physical and emotional impacts of the disease were closely interwoven. Participant explanatory models highlight difficulties in accessing care, despite a desire for biomedical treatment. Obtaining testing and treatment for Chagas disease poses substantial challenges for US patients.

COVID-19: Implications for People with Chagas Disease.

As the global COVID-19 pandemic advances, it increasingly impacts those vulnerable populations who already bear a heavy burden of neglected tropical disease. Chagas disease (CD), a neglected parasitic infection, is of particular concern because of its potential to cause cardiac, gastrointestinal, and other complications which could increase susceptibility to COVID-19. The over one million people worldwide with chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy require special consideration because of COVID-19's potential impact on the heart, yet the pandemic also affects treatment provision to people with acute or chronic indeterminate CD. In this document, a follow-up to the WHF-IASC Roadmap on CD, we assess the implications of coinfection with SARS-CoV-2 and Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of CD. Based on the limited evidence available, we provide preliminary guidance for testing, treatment, and management of patients affected by both diseases, while highlighting emerging healthcare access challenges and future research needs.

Domestic Triatoma sanguisuga-Human Exposure in the South Carolina Coastal Region.

A collaborative investigation was initiated in rural coastal South Carolina in response to a reported triatomine bite. The eastern conenose bug, Triatoma sanguisuga, was identified and tested for Trypanosoma cruzi. The insect was negative by PCR, and no additional triatomines were found in the vicinity of the home. This is the first published report of a bite from T. sanguisuga in South Carolina despite the fact that triatomine vectors have been documented in the state since the 1850s, and specimens have been collected from homes in the past. Sylvatic T. cruzi reservoirs are common throughout the southeastern United States, and this case brings to light the possibility of human contact with infected triatomines in the state of South Carolina for public health and clinical and entomology professionals.

A four-step process for building sustainable access to diagnosis and treatment of Chagas disease.

The vast majority of people with Chagas disease (CD) are undiagnosed and untreated. Improving access to diagnosis and treatment for CD involves confronting a wide range of barriers. This report discusses a collaborative approach to eliminate barriers and increase the availability of CD testing and treatment. Potential areas for intervention are selected based on burden of disease, support of local champions, and commitment from national and local authorities. A 4D approach (diagnose, design, deliver, and demonstrate impact) is then implemented. The diagnose step involves gathering key stakeholders at a seminar to collaboratively identify important barriers and propose solutions. The design step creates a specific plan to act upon the seminar's conclusions with consensus on core indicators. The deliver step entails implementing the plan at pilot locations, while simultaneously strengthening health system capacity for CD testing and treatment. Lastly, the demonstrate impact step compares baseline data with annual post-implementation data to measure progress. In Colombia, this approach has helped simplify testing procedures and increase CD testing and treatment access in pilot communities, though challenges remain. The 4D approach represents one of several pathways toward ensuring that the best therapeutic and diagnostic products reach people affected by neglected tropical diseases.

Una amplia mayoría de las personas con la enfermedad de Chagas no reciben diagnóstico ni tratamiento. Para mejorar el acceso al diagnóstico y al tratamiento de esta enfermedad es necesario superar multiples obstáculos. En el presente informe se considera un método colaborativo diseñado para superar las barreras y aumentar la disponibilidad de las pruebas de detección y el tratamiento de la enfermedad de Chagas. Se seleccionan los posibles ámbitos de intervención en función de la carga de enfermedad, el apoyo por parte de los líderes locales y el compromiso de las autoridades locales y nacionales. Posteriormente, se aplica un método 4D basado en cuatro pasos: diagnóstico, diseño, desarrollo y demonstración de impacto. El paso correspondiente al diagnóstico consiste en reunir en un seminario a los principales socios con el fin de establecer de manera colaborativa las barreras más importantes y ofrecer soluciones. En el paso de diseño, se elabora un plan específico para actuar conforme a las conclusiones del seminario de manera consensuada sobre los indicadores centrales. El paso de ejecución supone la aplicación del plan en las ubicaciones piloto, al tiempo que se fortalece la capacidad de los sistemas de salud en lo relativo a las pruebas de detección y el tratamiento de la enfermedad de Chagas. Finalmente, en el paso de demonstración de impacto se comparan los datos iniciales con los datos anuales posteriores a la ejecución para evaluar el progreso. En Colombia, este enfoque ha contribuido a simplificar los procedimientos de las pruebas de detección y brindar mayor acceso a la detección y el tratamiento de la enfermedad de Chagas en las comunidades piloto, si bien todavía hay retos que superar. El método de cuatro pasos es una de las diferentes vías para garantizar que los mejores productos de tratamiento y diagnóstico estén al alcance de las personas afectadas por las enfermedades tropicales desatendidas.

A ampla maioria das pessoas com doença de Chagas não é diagnosticada nem é tratada. Para melhorar o acesso ao diagnóstico e ao tratamento desta doença, é necessário superar uma série de barreiras. Neste relato, é exposta uma abordagem colaborativa com o objetivo de vencer as barreiras e aumentar a disponibilidade do exame de detecção da doença de Chagas. As possíveis áreas de intervenção são selecionadas de acordo com a carga de doença, o apoio de defensores da causa e o compromisso das autoridades nacionais e locais. Uma abordagem em 4Ds (diagnóstico, desenho, desenvolvimento e demonstração de impacto) é implementada. No passo ''diagnóstico'', um seminário com os principais atores é realizado para identificarem as maiores barreiras e proporem soluções de modo colaborativo. No passo ''desenho'', um plano de ação é elaborado a partir das conclusões tiradas do seminário mediante o consenso sobre os indicadores básicos. No passo ''desenvolvimento'', o plano é implementado em áreas-piloto e, em paralelo, a capacidade do sistema de saúde de realizar os exames de detecção e o tratamento da doença de Chagas é reforçada. Por último, no passo ''demonstração de impacto'', os dados de referência são comparados aos dados anuais pós-implementação com o objetivo de avaliar o progresso. Na Colômbia, apesar de persistirem os desafios, esta abordagem contribuiu para simplificar o procedimento para o exame de detecção da doença de Chagas, aumentar o número de exames realizados e melhorar o acesso ao tratamento nas comunidades-piloto. A abordagem em 4Ds representa um dos vários cursos a serem seguidos para garantir que os melhores recursos diagnósticos e terapêuticos cheguem até as pessoas afetadas por doenças tropicais negligenciadas.

A four-step process for building sustainable access to diagnosis and treatment of Chagas disease

[ABSTRACT]. The vast majority of people with Chagas disease (CD) are undiagnosed and untreated. Improving access to diagnosis and treatment for CD involves confronting a wide range of barriers. This report discusses a collaborative approach to eliminate barriers and increase the availability of CD testing and treatment. Potential areas for intervention are selected based on burden of disease, support of local champions, and commitment from national and local authorities. A 4D approach (diagnose, design, deliver, and demonstrate impact) is then implemented. The diagnose step involves gathering key stakeholders at a seminar to collaboratively identify important barriers and propose solutions. The design step creates a specific plan to act upon the seminar’s conclusions with consensus on core indicators. The deliver step entails implementing the plan at pilot locations, while simultaneously strengthening health system capacity for CD testing and treatment. Lastly, the demonstrate impact step compares baseline data with annual post-implementation data to measure progress. In Colombia, this approach has helped simplify testing procedures and increase CD testing and treatment access in pilot communities, though challenges remain. The 4D approach represents one of several pathways toward ensuring that the best therapeutic and diagnostic products reach people affected by neglected tropical diseases.

[RESUMEN]. Una amplia mayoría de las personas con la enfermedad de Chagas no reciben diagnóstico ni tratamiento. Para mejorar el acceso al diagnóstico y al tratamiento de esta enfermedad es necesario superar multiples obstáculos. En el presente informe se considera un método colaborativo diseñado para superar las barreras y aumentar la disponibilidad de las pruebas de detección y el tratamiento de la enfermedad de Chagas. Se seleccionan los posibles ámbitos de intervención en función de la carga de enfermedad, el apoyo por parte de los líderes locales y el compromiso de las autoridades locales y nacionales. Posteriormente, se aplica un método 4D basado en cuatro pasos: diagnóstico, diseño, desarrollo y demonstración de impacto. El paso correspondiente al diagnóstico consiste en reunir en un seminario a los principales socios con el fin de establecer de manera colaborativa las barreras más importantes y ofrecer soluciones. En el paso de diseño, se elabora un plan específico para actuar conforme a las conclusiones del seminario de manera consensuada sobre los indicadores centrales. El paso de ejecución supone la aplicación del plan en las ubicaciones piloto, al tiempo que se fortalece la capacidad de los sistemas de salud en lo relativo a las pruebas de detección y el tratamiento de la enfermedad de Chagas. Finalmente, en el paso de demonstración de impacto se comparan los datos iniciales con los datos anuales posteriores a la ejecución para evaluar el progreso. En Colombia, este enfoque ha contribuido a simplificar los procedimientos de las pruebas de detección y brindar mayor acceso a la detección y el tratamiento de la enfermedad de Chagas en las comunidades piloto, si bien todavía hay retos que superar. El método de cuatro pasos es una de las diferentes vías para garantizar que los mejores productos de tratamiento y diagnóstico estén al alcance de las personas afectadas por las enfermedades tropicales desatendidas.

[RESUMO]. A ampla maioria das pessoas com doença de Chagas não é diagnosticada nem é tratada. Para melhorar o acesso ao diagnóstico e ao tratamento desta doença, é necessário superar uma série de barreiras. Neste relato, é exposta uma abordagem colaborativa com o objetivo de vencer as barreiras e aumentar a disponibilidade do exame de detecção da doença de Chagas. As possíveis áreas de intervenção são selecionadas de acordo com a carga de doença, o apoio de defensores da causa e o compromisso das autoridades nacionais e locais. Uma abordagem em 4Ds (diagnóstico, desenho, desenvolvimento e demonstração de impacto) é implementada. No passo ‘’diagnóstico’’, um seminário com os principais atores é realizado para identificarem as maiores barreiras e proporem soluções de modo colaborativo. No passo ‘’desenho’’, um plano de ação é elaborado a partir das conclusões tiradas do seminário mediante o consenso sobre os indicadores básicos. No passo ‘’desenvolvimento’’, o plano é implementado em áreas-piloto e, em paralelo, a capacidade do sistema de saúde de realizar os exames de detecção e o tratamento da doença de Chagas é reforçada. Por último, no passo ‘’demonstração de impacto’’, os dados de referência são comparados aos dados anuais pós-implementação com o objetivo de avaliar o progresso. Na Colômbia, apesar de persistirem os desafios, esta abordagem contribuiu para simplificar o procedimento para o exame de detecção da doença de Chagas, aumentar o número de exames realizados e melhorar o acesso ao tratamento nas comunidades-piloto. A abordagem em 4Ds representa um dos vários cursos a serem seguidos para garantir que os melhores recursos diagnósticos e terapêuticos cheguem até as pessoas afetadas por doenças tropicais negligenciadas.

Prevalence of Chagas Disease Among Family Members of Previously Diagnosed Patients in Los Angeles, California.

Chagas disease (CD) in the United States is severely underdiagnosed, due to an absence of systematic screening as part of routine healthcare. We screened 189 relatives of 86 existing patients and found a CD prevalence of 7.4%. Screening close relatives of previously diagnosed individuals can effectively identify new CD cases.

Clinical and pharmacological profile of benznidazole for treatment of Chagas disease.

INTRODUCTION: Chagas disease (CD) is one of the most neglected public health problems in the Americas, where <1% of the estimated 6 million people with the infection have been diagnosed and treated. The goal of treatment is to eliminate the parasite, decrease the probability of cardiomyopathy and other complications during the chronic stage of infection, and interrupt the cycle of disease transmission by preventing congenital infection. Currently, only benznidazole (BZN) and nifurtimox are recognized by the World Health Organization as effective drugs for treatment of CD. In this paper, we provide an overview of the clinical pharmacology of BZN. Areas covered: This review covers the historical background, chemistry, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, preclinical research, resistance, clinical research, toxicology, adverse effects, and current regulatory status of BZN. Expert commentary: Ongoing investigations aim to optimize BZN therapy by adjusting the current standard regimen or by combining BZN with new chemical entities. These studies are assessing alternatives that improve safety while maintaining or increasing the efficacy of BZN. Timely diagnosis and antitrypanosomal treatment are critical components of programs to eliminate CD as a public health problem, and can dramatically reduce the heavy burden of morbidity and mortality caused by the disease.

"It's Like a Phantom Disease": Patient Perspectives on Access to Treatment for Chagas Disease in the United States.

Chagas disease (CD) affects > 6 million people globally, including > 300,000 in the United States. Although early detection and etiological treatment prevents chronic complications from CD, < 1% of U.S. cases have been diagnosed and treated. This study explores access to etiological treatment from the perspective of patients with CD. In semi-structured interviews with 50 Latin American-born patients of the Center of Excellence for Chagas Disease at the Olive View-UCLA Medical Center, we collected demographic information and asked patients about their experiences managing the disease and accessing treatment. Patients were highly marginalized, with 63.4% living below the U.S. poverty line, 60% lacking a high school education, and only 12% with private insurance coverage. The main barriers to accessing health care for CD were lack of providers, precarious insurance coverage, low provider awareness, transportation difficulties, and limited time off. Increasing access to diagnosis and treatment will not only require a dramatic increase in provider and public education, but also development of programs which are financially, linguistically, politically, and geographically accessible to patients.

A Community-Based Screening Program for Chagas Disease in the USA.

Chagas disease (CD) affects over 300 000 people in the USA, many with limited access to healthcare. Although early detection and treatment prevents life-threatening complications, <1% of people with CD receive diagnosis, and routine screening is virtually nonexistent in the USA. We describe a program that led to an increase in CD screening in the Latin American-born population of Los Angeles.

Prevalence of Chagas Disease in the Latin American-born Population of Los Angeles.

Background: According to an estimate from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Chagas disease (CD) may affect 1.31% of Latin American immigrants in the United States, with >300 000 cases. However, there is a lack of real-world data to support this estimate. Little is known about the actual prevalence of this neglected tropical disease in the United States, and the bulk of those infected are undiagnosed. Methods: From April 2008 to May 2014, we screened 4,755 Latin American-born residents of Los Angeles County. Blood samples were tested for serologic evidence of CD. We collected demographic data and assessed the impact of established risk factors on CD diagnosis, including sex, country of origin, housing materials, family history of CD, and awareness of CD. Results: There were 59 cases of CD, for an overall prevalence of 1.24%. Prevalence was highest among Salvadorans (3.45%). Of the 3,182 Mexican respondents, those from Oaxaca (4.65%) and Zacatecas (2.2%) had the highest CD prevalence. Salvadoran origin (aOR = 6.2; 95% CI = 2.8-13.5; P < .001), prior knowledge of CD (aOR = 2.4; 95% CI = 1.0-5.8; P = .047), and exposure to all 3 at-risk housing types (adobe, mud, and thatched roof) (aOR = 2.5; 95% CI = 1.0-6.4; P = .048) were associated with positive diagnosis. Conclusions: In the largest screening of CD in the United States to date outside of blood banks, we found a CD prevalence of 1.24%. This implies >30 000 people infected in Los Angeles County alone, making CD an important public health concern. Efficient, targeted surveillance of CD may accelerate diagnosis and identify candidates for early treatment.

"I Cannot Be Worried": Living with Chagas Disease in Tropical Bolivia.

BACKGROUND: Chagas disease (CD) profoundly affects the social and emotional dimensions of patients' lives, and disproportionately impacts poor, marginalized populations in Latin America. Biomedical treatment for CD fails to reach up to 99% of the people affected, and in any case seldom addresses the emotional health or socioeconomic conditions of patients. This study examines patient strategies for coping with CD in the department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia. METHODOLOGY: In this ethnographic study, semistructured interviews took place from March-June 2013 with 63 patients who had previously tested positive for CD. During the fieldwork period, participant observation was conducted and patient family members, providers, community members, and public health officials were consulted. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Patients often experienced emotional distress when diagnosed with CD, yet were generally unable to find biomedical treatment. Respondents stressed the need to avoid powerful emotions which would worsen the impact of CD symptoms. To manage CD, patients embraced a calm state of mind, described in Spanish as tranquilidad, which partially empowered them to return to a normal existence. CONCLUSIONS: In the perceived absence of biomedical treatment options, patients seek their own means of coping with CD diagnosis. Rather than fatalism or resignation, patients' emphasis on maintaining calm and not worrying about CD represents a pragmatic strategy for restoring a sense of normalcy and control to their lives. Programs focused on treatment of CD should remain mindful of the emotional and social impact of the disease on patients.

Prevalence of Chagas Disease in a U.S. Population of Latin American Immigrants with Conduction Abnormalities on Electrocardiogram.

Chagas disease (CD) affects over six million people and is a leading cause of cardiomyopathy in Latin America. Given recent migration trends, there is a large population at risk in the United States (US). Early stage cardiac involvement from CD usually presents with conduction abnormalities on electrocardiogram (ECG) including right bundle branch block (RBBB), left anterior or posterior fascicular block (LAFB or LPFB, respectively), and rarely, left bundle branch block (LBBB). Identification of disease at this stage may lead to early treatment and potentially delay the progression to impaired systolic function. All ECGs performed in a Los Angeles County hospital and clinic system were screened for the presence of RBBB, LAFB, LPFB, or LBBB. Patients were contacted and enrolled in the study if they had previously resided in Latin America for at least 12 months and had no history of cardiac disease. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunofluorescence assay (IFA) tests were utilized to screen for Trypanosoma cruzi seropositivity. A total of 327 consecutive patients were screened for CD from January 2007 to December 2010. The mean age was 46.3 years and the mean length of stay in the US was 21.2 years. Conduction abnormalities were as follows: RBBB 40.4%, LAFB 40.1%, LPFB 2.8%, LBBB 5.5%, RBBB and LAFB 8.6%, and RBBB and LPFB 2.8%. Seventeen patients were positive by both ELISA and IFA (5.2%). The highest prevalence rate was among those with RBBB and LAFB (17.9%). There is a significant prevalence of CD in Latin American immigrants residing in Los Angeles with conduction abnormalities on ECG. Clinicians should consider evaluating all Latin American immigrant patients with unexplained conduction disease for CD.

Safety Profile of Nifurtimox for Treatment of Chagas Disease in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Nifurtimox is 1 of only 2 medications available for treating Chagas disease (CD) and currently the only drug available in the United States, but its safety and tolerance have not been extensively studied. This is the first study to evaluate tolerance of nifurtimox in US patients with CD. METHODS: This investigation assessed side effects in a sample of 53 patients with CD, all Latin American immigrants, who underwent treatment with nifurtimox (8-10 mg/kg in 3 daily doses for 12 weeks) from March 2008 to July 2012. The frequency and severity of adverse events (AEs) was recorded. RESULTS: A total of 435 AEs were recorded; 93.8% were mild, 3.0% moderate, and 3.2% severe. Patients experienced a mean of 8.2 AEs; the most frequent were anorexia (79.2%), nausea (75.5%), headache (60.4%), amnesia (58.5%), and >5% weight loss (52.8%). Eleven patients (20.8%) were unable to complete treatment. Experiencing a moderate or severe AE (odds ratio [OR], 3.82; P < .05) and Mexican nationality (OR, 2.29; P < .05) were significant predictors of treatment discontinuation, but sex and cardiac progression at baseline were not. Patients who did not complete treatment experienced nearly 3 times more AEs per 30-day period (P = .05). CONCLUSIONS: Nifurtimox produces frequent side effects, but the majority are mild and can be managed with dose reduction and/or temporary suspension of medication. The high frequency of gastrointestinal symptoms and weight loss mirrors results from prior investigations. Special attention should be paid during the early stages of treatment to potentially severe symptoms including depression, rash, and anxiety.